1 Introduction

The Amazon Basin, known for its unmatched variety of life, is now under serious threat due to climate change. Higher temperatures, shifting rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme weather are changing local ecosystems, putting many animal species, especially mammals, at risk. Learning how these changes affect wildlife is key to guiding protection efforts and keeping this important natural area healthy.

The Amazon Basin holds the world’s biggest tropical rainforest, rich in plant and animal life, and plays an important role in the Earth’s climate and carbon storage. It contains many different types of habitats, which are home to thousands of species, some found nowhere else. Keeping the Amazon healthy is not just important for the region’s animals and plants, but also for the planet’s climate balance (Feng et al., 2021; De Morais et al., 2024; De Souza et al., 2024).

Mammals in the Amazon help keep nature in balance by spreading seeds, hunting other animals, and shaping their surroundings. Larger species like monkeys and wild cats have big impacts on how forests grow and how food chains work (Leão et al., 2023; Quintero et al., 2023). Because they are easily affected by changes to their environment, these animals serve as signs of how healthy and stable the ecosystem is (Quintero et al., 2023; Rocha et al., 2023).

This study will provide a comprehensive analysis of current knowledge on the impacts of climate change on the habitats of Amazonian mammals. It will summarize climate change trends and their manifestations in the Amazon, examine changes in habitat structure and availability, and outline mammalian population responses and adaptive mechanisms. Additionally, through case studies on the habitat impacts of mammals in the Amazon Basin, the research will identify knowledge gaps and inform conservation strategies aimed at enhancing the resilience of these key species and ecosystems in the face of ongoing environmental change.

2 Climate Change Trends and Their Manifestations in the Amazon

2.1 Rising temperature trends

The Amazon Basin has been getting noticeably warmer over the past few decades, with average temperatures going up by about 0.61.0°C in the last 4060 years (Gloor et al., 2015; Nobre et al., 2016; Marengo et al., 2018; Braga and Laurini, 2024; Marengo et al., 2024). This warming trend has become more serious since the 1980s, with 2016 being the hottest year on record since at least 1950 (Marengo et al., 2018). The eastern and southeastern areas have warmed the most, especially during the dry months, putting more pressure on forest health and raising the chance of tree loss (Gatti et al., 2021). These rising temperatures are tied to both global warming and local forest clearing, which together make the heat problem worse (Baker and Spracklen, 2019).

2.2 Changes in precipitation patterns

Rainfall patterns across the Amazon have become more unpredictable, showing clear differences between regions. In the southern and eastern parts, the dry season is lasting longer and getting less rain, while the northern areas are getting more storms and heavier rainfall. At the same time, both droughts and floods are happening more often, with serious floods now seen every four years instead of every 20 years like in the early 1900s. These changes are caused by a mix of natural shifts in the climate, land being used differently, and warmer ocean waters in both the Atlantic and Pacific (Gloor et al., 2015; Marengo et al., 2018; Marengo et al., 2024).

2.3 Alterations in the hydrological system

Big shifts are happening in how water moves through the Amazon. This includes stronger water cycles, changes in river flow, and more frequent extreme events (Gloor et al., 2015; Marengo et al., 2018; Marengo et al., 2024). In some places, wet season rains and river levels are going up, but in others—especially in the southern and eastern Amazon—dry season rains and river lows are dropping. Cutting down forests and climate warming are making areas drier, reducing how much water plants give off, and raising fire danger, which throws off the water system even more (Marengo et al., 2018; Baker and Spracklen, 2019; Gatti et al., 2021; Albert et al., 2023). These water-related changes put Amazon forests at risk and weaken their ability to keep providing key ecological services (Boulton et al., 2021; Flores et al., 2024).

3 Changes in Habitat Structure and Availability

3.1 Degradation of forest structure

Degradation of forest environment is mainly caused by land use change and human disturbance, which lead to significant changes in forest composition and structure. Forests become less complex and habitat connectivity decreases, which are important for the survival of many mammals. After the destruction of complex forests with multiple layers of vegetation and tall trees, the space suitable for animal survival is reduced, and populations are more easily separated, making them more sensitive to external changes. In the neotropics, primary forests are gradually replaced by secondary forests or grasslands, which greatly reduces the habitat of species that rely on intact forests (Cuarón, 2000).

3.2 Microclimate changes and heat stress

When forest structure is destroyed, local climate will also change. The reduction of forest canopy and the enhancement of forest edge effect expose animals to higher temperatures and greater temperature differences, making them prone to heat stress. For mammals accustomed to living in a cool and stable environment, this change will affect their behavior, physical condition and even survival. Microclimates that could have helped mitigate temperature changes also become less available as forests degrade, putting temperature-sensitive animals at greater risk (Cuarón, 2000).

3.3 Shrinkage of wetlands and flooded forests

Wetlands and seasonally flooded forests are important habitats for many Amazonian mammals. When these areas are converted to grasslands or secondary vegetation, their size and quality are damaged. The reduction of wetlands not only means less available habitat, but also disrupts ecological processes such as nutrient cycling and water regulation, which are essential for mammalian diversity. In particular, species that rely exclusively on wetlands will face a significant increase in survival pressure after the environment becomes smaller (Cuarón, 2000).

4 Mammalian Population Responses and Adaptive Mechanisms

4.1 Shifts in geographic range

Many mammal species are changing where they live in response to shifting climate conditions. These changes can be complicated—some populations are moving into new areas that have become suitable, while others are shrinking or splitting apart. Still, detailed information about range changes in most Amazon mammals is scarce. There is also a gap between the places most affected by climate change and the locations where species monitoring is happening. How well a species can move to new habitats depends on how far it can travel, how connected the landscape is, and how quickly the environment is changing (Paniw et al., 2021).

4.2 Declines in population dynamics and reproductive success

Climate shifts affect many parts of a species’ life—like how well they survive, grow, and reproduce—which can have complicated results for population trends. Some populations might see improvements in one area but declines in another, depending on the environment (Paniw et al., 2021). For instance, changes in rainfall or temperature might lower birth rates or survival of young animals, which puts the population at risk. So far, most studies suggest that flexible traits—rather than fast evolution—are helping wild mammals adjust to new conditions (Boutin and Lane, 2013). Yet, only a few species have been studied in this way, leaving big gaps in what is known (Boutin and Lane, 2013; Paniw et al., 2021).

4.3 Disruptions in ecological interactions

When climate affects mammal numbers or behavior, it can upset the relationships they have with other species—like those involving hunting, competition, or cooperation. These shifts might ripple through ecosystems and change how communities are structured or how they function. Some animals respond by adjusting their habits, such as when they feed or what they eat, but it’s still unclear how these changes will play out in the long term (Boutin and Lane, 2013). The mix of population changes and interaction shifts shows why broad, in-depth studies are needed (Boutin and Lane, 2013; Paniw et al., 2021).

5 Cumulative Effects under Multiple Stressors

5.1 Combined impact of climate change and land use change

Changes in how land is used—like cutting down forests, growing more crops, or building cities—work together with climate change to reshape natural areas, weaken ecosystem functions, and increase local temperatures (Kalnay and Cai, 2003; Roy et al., 2022). In the Amazon, turning forests into farms or grazing lands can raise nearby temperatures by amounts similar to those from rising greenhouse gases, making the impacts of global warming even worse. These shifts break apart habitats and reduce their quality, which makes it harder for mammals to adjust or move as the climate changes (Roy et al., 2022; Newbold, 2018). If these pressures continue unchecked, large drops in biodiversity are expected, with some animal groups—especially vertebrates—possibly losing over 35% of their species by 2070 under current development trends (Newbold, 2018). Also, when land use change and climate warming interact, they can bring about harsher local weather patterns, including more droughts and floods, which further harm the spaces mammals rely on (Dirmeyer et al., 2010).

5.2 Increased risk of disease transmission

Although the cited studies do not focus on disease risks in Amazonian mammals, findings from other areas show that breaking up habitats and putting animals under stress from human activity and climate shifts can raise the chances of disease spreading. As natural spaces are lost and edges between habitats increase, wild animals may come into closer contact with each other, livestock, or people—creating more opportunities for diseases to cross between species.

6 Case Studies on Habitat Impacts for Amazonian Mammals

6.1 Habitat response studies of primates

Although the listed studies are not centered solely on primates, research on medium- to large-sized mammals—which includes many primate species—shows that habitat loss and breaking up of forest areas greatly lowers the chances of these animals surviving in the wild. Regions with more natural habitat tend to support primates and other large mammals better, while continuous forest clearing and landscape damage increase the risk of local extinction. Protected zones play an essential role, yet their success is being weakened by ongoing forest loss and lack of proper connections between safe areas (Bogoni et al., 2024).

6.2 Habitat change research on large carnivores

Big predators like jaguars and giant armadillos are especially vulnerable to changes in their environment caused by people. Where these species choose to live often depends on how much tree cover remains and how close the area is to disturbed land. Jaguars and giant armadillos are mostly affected by the loss of forest, while animals like white-lipped peccaries are most often found inside well-protected zones and tend to avoid places near towns or burned land. These patterns highlight the need for large, connected forest habitats and strong management of protected regions to ensure the survival of major carnivore species in the Amazon (Quintero et al., 2023; Teixeira-Santos et al., 2020).

6.3 Ecological adaptation of rodents

Rodent and small mammal communities show strong responses to habitat fragmentation and changes in substrate quality. Forest-dependent rodents experience local extinction in small, isolated patches, while species that prefer open habitats or are adaptable to the substrate may invade degraded patches, thereby changing community composition (Santos-Filho et al., 2012; Palmeirim et al., 2018; Palmeirim et al., 2020). Surveys of the southern Brazilian Amazon forest from 1985 to 2015 found that over time and with the increase in forest fragmentation, the forest dependence of small mammal communities generally decreased, and areas with low functional diversity (FD) values continued to expand, indicating that forest fragmentation not only reduces habitat area, but also continuously changes the structure and function of the community (Figure 1) (Palmeirim et al., 2020). The persistence of small mammals is affected by both the patch area and the complexity of the surrounding substrate structure. A more complex substrate can support higher species richness and quantity. However, these changes may disrupt ecosystem functioning, leading to dominance of generalist species at the expense of local forest-specific species.

Figure 1 Community-averaged forest-dependency (FD) of small mammal assemblages across the fragmented landscape of Alta Floresta, southern Brazilian Amazon, for 1985, 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015 (Adopted from Palmeirim et al., 2020) Image caption: Forest patches are colour-coded according to the equation: community-average FD = 0.35 log10 forest area– 0.04 log10 forest area2; Forest area explained 61% of community-averaged FD (Adopted from Palmeirim et al., 2020)

7 Conservation Strategies and Adaptive Management Recommendations

7.1 Strengthening protected area networks and habitat connectivity

Improving and managing protected lands remain key strategies for helping biodiversity adapt to climate shifts. Keeping habitats linked—by using corridors, small connecting patches, and conservation agreements—helps animals move and shift their ranges as conditions change (Walsworth et al., 2019; LeDee et al., 2020; McLaughlin et al., 2022). Focusing on diverse habitats and well-connected reserves builds stronger systems, supports natural evolution, and offers safe zones for species under threat. These actions are widely seen as essential parts of both standard and climate-focused conservation efforts.

7.2 Climate-responsive dynamic conservation planning

Planning for conservation must move away from fixed historical references and instead look ahead to changing climate conditions (Lawler, 2009; McLaughlin et al., 2022). Adaptive strategies—ones that are tested, watched, and revised over time—allow for better handling of unexpected changes or new findings (McCarthy and Possingham, 2007; McLaughlin et al., 2022; Canessa et al., 2025). Using future scenarios, planning restoration to support upcoming ecosystem needs, and applying triage methods can help achieve stronger results during rapid changes. Including natural adaptation processes like moving genes or boosting resilience also supports long-term species survival (Kelly and Phillips, 2016; Walsworth et al., 2019).

7.3 Community engagement and integration of local knowledge

Involving nearby communities and valuing their knowledge is vital for building practical conservation strategies (Divsalar et al., 2024). When local people take part in planning, outcomes are more accepted and better matched to their situations, and traditional skills can be useful for tracking and adjusting actions. Tailoring efforts to local behaviors and encouraging shared learning between experts and communities can lead to lasting and effective conservation (Cook et al., 2021; Divsalar et al., 2024).

7.4 Monitoring system development and data sharing mechanisms

Strong, ongoing monitoring tools are needed to observe habitat conditions, wildlife trends, and how well management is working (McLaughlin et al., 2022). Making decisions based on solid data, backed by open sharing and teamwork, supports flexible and informed conservation (Cook et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2024). There is growing recognition of the need to better assess adaptation efforts, understand what succeeds, and improve future actions over time (Hansen et al., 2023; Canessa et al., 2025).

8 Concluding Remarks

Mammals living in the Amazon are highly affected by climate change. Most species are expected to face unfamiliar climate conditions across much of their habitats by 2070. Species that are found only in this region are especially vulnerable, with nearly all predicted to experience these new conditions in more than 80% of their living areas. These shifts not only put survival at risk but also reduce the important roles mammals play in the ecosystem. Many species may see their living areas shrink, populations break apart, and fewer suitable environments remain—even within protected zones.

Multiple studies show that Amazonian mammals, such as primates and big predators, are greatly impacted by climate-linked habitat damage, isolation, and changes in forest makeup. A large number of these animals cannot move far or fast enough to keep up with changing climates. This leads to more isolation and forces them into areas that may not fully meet their needs. Even though protected areas help, they might not be enough, since climate change is moving faster than many species can adapt and faster than many current conservation plans can respond.

To reduce habitat loss and help these animals adapt, it is important to link climate research, habitat models, and flexible management across different levels. Tools like niche modeling and future scenario planning help map safe areas, predict where species might move, and guide which areas need urgent protection. Conservation work must stay flexible, with actions that both protect stable zones and react quickly to sudden risks, supported by steady monitoring and data exchange.

Since the Amazon stretches across several countries and holds global importance, strong international teamwork is necessary. Real progress in conservation will need joint action from all Amazonian countries, respect for the knowledge held by indigenous and local people, and support from the global community in research, law enforcement, and sustainable practices. Building stronger partnerships worldwide will help design better conservation methods and ensure Amazonian mammals—and the ecosystems they support—can continue far into the future.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express my gratitude to my colleagues and research partners for their support and assistance in literature review and data analysis.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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