1 Introduction

Invasive weevils (Cuculivoridae) are becoming one of the most destructive biological factors in global agricultural ecosystems. These beetles have significant morphological advantages, such as an elongated proboscis and specialized feeding organs, which enable them to penetrate a variety of plant tissues for feeding, not limited to a single host. Driven by increasingly frequent international trade activities and the trend of global warming, their distribution area is constantly expanding, and the negative impacts have affected food security and ecological balance.

Many weevil species have become major agricultural pests due to their unique biological characteristics. Species such as the cotton boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis), the red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus) and the lichen root weevil (Diaprepes abbreviatus) show rapid population growth, wide host adaptability and tolerance to different climatic conditions. These characteristics, combined with their cryptic life cycle stages and resistance to traditional control methods, make weevils control in field and urban agricultural environments a huge challenge (Milosavljević et al., 2018; Haseeb et al., 2019; Jones et al., 2019; Engsontia and Satasook, 2021; Sylvester et al., 2023).

Their ecological and economic impacts have long been apparent. Take the cotton boll weevil as an example. This species destroyed the cotton industry in the southern United States in the 20th century, which led to a series of large-scale control and eradication projects; the red palm weevil continues to invade large palm plantations in Asia, Africa and Europe, becoming one of the key pests of international concern (Milosavljević et al., 2018). More seriously, they not only cause direct plant damage, but also can act as a vector of plant pathogens and form ecological exclusion of local insects through resource competition, thus affecting regional biodiversity and system functional stability. Climate factors combined with global trade have caused the frequency and spatial range of weevil invasions to continue to expand (Milosavljević et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2024).

This study intends to systematically sort out the impact mechanism of weevil invasion on agricultural systems. Through multi-regional and multi-species case comparisons, the biological basis and ecological adaptation characteristics of its successful invasion are deeply revealed; combined with empirical data, the economic losses and ecological costs caused by it are quantitatively evaluated; and the existing comprehensive management experience is further integrated, including early monitoring and early warning, natural enemy utilization and policy intervention, etc., to comprehensively analyze the effectiveness and limitations of various prevention and control strategies. By summarizing successful and failed prevention and control practices, it aims to put forward practical research suggestions and promote the establishment of a long-term, effective and eco-friendly sustainable management system for weevils.

2 Invasion Pathways and Dispersal Mechanisms of Invasive Weevils

2.1 Invasion routes and mediating factors

In recent years, international trade has become the main driving force for the transnational spread of weevils, especially in the circulation of agricultural products, the trade of ornamental plants, and the international transportation of wooden packaging materials. Taking the agave weevil (Scyphophorus acupunctatus) as an example, its global spread path clearly shows the characteristics of trade-driven. Genetic studies have shown that individuals that invaded Europe mainly originated from specific areas in Central America, and frequent plant trade has become the direct driving force for its rapid spread (Viviano et al., 2024). At the same time, palm plants widely planted in urban greening systems provide a continuous ecological basis for the habitat and expansion of palm weevils (Rhynchophorus spp.). Modern transportation means - including the efficient operation of air shipping and road networks - further promote their long-distance migration, highlighting the core driving role of human activities in the process of biological invasion (Milosavljević et al., 2018; Gippet et al., 2019). In this context, increasing the quarantine intensity of live plants and related materials has become one of the key measures to prevent the cross-border spread of weevils (Milosavljević et al., 2018; Viviano et al., 2024).

On the other hand, global warming is gradually breaking down the original geographical barriers. Weevils, which were originally confined to tropical and subtropical regions, have now begun to spread to higher latitudes. As temperatures rise, their reproduction rate accelerates and their survival ability improves, which significantly enhances their ability to establish in new areas. This heat-dependent diffusion pattern has been repeatedly confirmed in a variety of invasive insects. Predictions based on climate models indicate that if the current climate trend continues, the potential habitat of weevils will expand significantly in the next few decades, posing a substantial challenge and biosecurity threat to temperate agriculture (Renault et al., 2018).

2.2 Ecological adaptability and colonization capacity

Invasive weevils show extremely high flexibility and resilience in ecological adaptation, and their wide host spectrum enables them to utilize a variety of economic crops and horticultural plant resources. Some specific types, such as parthenogenetic populations, can successfully establish colonies even in resource-scarce and environmentally marginal habitats, fully demonstrating their extraordinary environmental adaptation mechanisms (Renault et al., 2018; Rodriguero et al., 2019; Sun et al., 2023). This ecological versatility, coupled with rapid host adaptation evolution, has greatly improved their colonization efficiency and enhanced their competitiveness in diverse ecosystems (Sun et al., 2023).

In addition, all developmental stages of weevils from eggs to adults are highly responsive to external temperature and humidity. Studies have shown that their populations can adapt to the climatic characteristics of different regions by adjusting the duration of development and behavioral strategies. This flexible adjustment ability at the physiological level is one of the key factors for the stable establishment of populations in non-native habitats. The plasticity of the life cycle and the ability to sensitively regulate climate variables constitute the important biological basis for the successful invasion of weevils in different ecological zones around the world (Miller and Tenhumberg, 2010).

3 Case Studies of Invasive Weevils in Agricultural Systems

3.1 Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Red Palm Weevil)

The red palm weevil is a vicious invasive pest that harms palm plants. Adults have chemotaxis and aggregation characteristics, often attracting large numbers of individuals to gather by pheromones and food volatiles (Figure 1). This species has spread rapidly from its native Asia to Africa and Mediterranean countries, and has now become a major threat to the local agricultural sector. Its hosts include a variety of palm crops such as coconut, oil palm, agave and ornamental palms. The larvae bore into the trunks and growing points to cause hidden damage - often not detected until the tree shows severe symptoms or dies (Milosavljević et al., 2018; Engsontia and Satasook, 2021; Bracchetti et al., 2023).

Figure 1 Red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus) (Adopted from Engsontia and Satasook, 2021) Image caption: (a) aggregating male and female adults (b) male mouthpart with chemosensory hairs (c) female mouthpart exhibiting sexual dimorphism (Adopted from Engsontia and Satasook, 2021)

Infestation by the red palm weevil can cause extremely high tree mortality, and the economic losses caused by tree removal, replacement and high-intensity chemical control are very large. In urban and agricultural landscapes, the loss of palm trees will also impact ecosystem services and cultural values (Milosavljević et al., 2018; Castillo et al., 2020; Engsontia and Satasook, 2021; Bracchetti et al., 2023). Its control is not only costly, but currently relies on chemical agents, which may cause negative environmental impacts (Castillo et al., 2020; Bracchetti et al., 2023). The application of integrated pest management (IPM) is still at a low level, currently relying mainly on legislative control and cultural control methods, and the use of chemical or mechanical methods is relatively limited (Alotaibi et al., 2022).

3.2 Myllocerus undatus (Sri Lankan Weevil / Black Weevil)

The black-winged weevil is native to India and Southeast Asia and has now formed a stable population in the southern United States. As a highly omnivorous pest, it can feed on a variety of plants such as legumes, solanaceae, and ornamental plants. This wide host range not only greatly increases its invasive potential, but also significantly increases the difficulty of control. Adults feed on leaves, causing plant defoliation, while larvae damage roots, weakening plant vitality and making them more sensitive to other stress factors (Mackay-Smith et al., 2021).

3.3 Diaprepes abbreviatus (Diaprepes Root Weevil)

Originating in the Caribbean, the citrus root weevil has become a major threat to the agricultural sector in Florida and California, USA. The larvae feed on the roots of crops such as citrus and sugarcane, causing direct damage and paving the way for the invasion of soil-borne pathogenic fungi, which accelerates plant decline (Sylvester et al., 2023).

Control measures include biological control (such as insect pathogenic nematodes and fungi) and root zone management to reduce weevil survival and curb pathogen spread. Genomic studies have shown that the weevil has a large number of plant cell wall degrading enzymes - which not only explains its wide host range and high invasiveness, but also makes comprehensive and multi-strategy management plans particularly necessary (Sylvester et al., 2023).

4 Multidimensional Impacts of Invasive Weevils on Agricultural Ecosystems

4.1 Crop yields and economic losses

Invasive weevils are highly destructive pests in many agricultural systems, which can significantly reduce crop yields and cause staggering economic losses. The rice water weevil (Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus) is a typical example. As one of the pests with the greatest economic impact on rice production in the United States, once it breaks out, it often causes serious yield reductions and must be continuously controlled to avoid economic losses (Wilson et al., 2021). The same is true for the alfalfa weevil (Hypera postica), which causes a large amount of alfalfa leaf drop and slow regeneration, ultimately resulting in a decline in both yield and quality - such losses can usually only be partially recovered by applying pesticides or adjusting harvest time (Harrington et al., 2021; Kandil et al., 2023; Herreid et al., 2025).

Historically, the boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis) has had a profound impact on agricultural systems. Its continued damage to cotton has led to long-term low yields, forcing farmers to switch to other crops, which has not only changed land use patterns, but also significantly lowered land prices, which in turn has had an impact on rural economic vitality (Lange et al., 2009). In the cultivation system of tropical cash crops such as palm and banana, the invasion of red palm weevils (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus) and banana weevils (Cosmopolites sordidus) has attracted widespread attention. These pests can cause a large number of plant deaths in a short period of time, severely reducing crop output, and directly threatening the economic sustainability of families and regions that rely on agriculture for their livelihoods. Whether it is large-scale commercial farms or farmers who rely on subsistence agriculture, the stability of their production systems is particularly vulnerable to the infestation of such weevils (Manee et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2024).

4.2 Changes in plant communities and farmland biodiversity

The ecological impact of invasive weevils goes far beyond the economic level. In addition to directly destroying crops, their feeding behavior and reproductive activities will also have indirect and far-reaching effects on farmland and its surrounding ecosystems. These behaviors may disrupt the dynamic balance of the original plant community and trigger changes in the composition structure of plants, thereby leading to a decline in local species diversity and, in turn, damaging the stability and service functions of the ecosystem (Tomasetto et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2024). Taking the red palm weevil as an example, its harm is not limited to cultivated palm species, but also has the potential to spread to wild palm plants. Once it expands to natural ecosystems, this type of weevil will threaten both agricultural biodiversity and native plant diversity, resulting in a situation where both agricultural systems and natural ecosystems are damaged (Milosavljević et al., 2018; Manee et al., 2023). Such cross-system impacts indicate that the systemic risks posed by weevil invasion to the ecological environment cannot be ignored.

In highly intensive agricultural landscapes, simplified plant communities and reduced natural enemy diversity may cause pests to develop resistance to biological control factors, which will undoubtedly further threaten the sustainability of pest management and ecosystem health (Tomasetto et al., 2017).

4.3 Pesticide dependence and environmental externality risks

Chemical pesticides still play a leading role in the control of invasive weevils, but this dependence also brings a series of environmental costs and potential externalities that cannot be ignored. The large-scale and frequent use of pesticides has been proven to induce resistance in weevils, resulting in reduced control efficiency. It also interferes with non-target biological communities, threatening ecosystem stability and human health and safety (Nurashikin-Khairuddin et al., 2022; Herreid et al., 2025). Taking palm plantations as an example, in the process of large-scale spraying of synthetic pesticides to control red palm weevils, problems such as water pollution, residue accumulation and increased resistance have occurred, which has aroused widespread concern and prompted managers to gradually shift to more environmentally friendly integrated pest management (IPM) and biological control programs (Khun et al., 2020; Nurashikin-Khairuddin et al., 2022).

In banana cultivation systems, the environmental and health risks caused by chemical control of banana weevils are also of concern. This reality forces researchers and agricultural practitioners to jointly seek safer and more sustainable alternatives, including optimizing agronomic operations, developing botanical natural pesticides, applying microbial preparations and other biological control resources (Bukomeko et al., 2023).

5 Mitigation Strategies and Integrated Control Measures

5.1 Early monitoring and warning system development

The construction of an effective early warning system is a key link in preventing large-scale outbreaks of weevils. In recent years, the application of new monitoring technologies such as seismic sensors in the control of red palm weevils has shown superior sensitivity and intervention accuracy. Such equipment can detect signs of pest activity in a timely manner, thereby reducing dependence on broad-spectrum pesticides and triggering efficient management response mechanisms, significantly compressing the window of pest outbreaks and reducing related losses (Mendel et al., 2024). Embedding real-time sensor data in grower decisions has proven to be economically feasible, especially when combined with continuous monitoring and rapid feedback mechanisms. At the same time, pheromone traps and automatic identification equipment have been widely deployed in multiple regions, becoming an important tool to support regional early warning and interception of pest spread (Al-Dosary et al., 2016; Alotaibi et al., 2022).

5.2 Biological control techniques

As a core component of integrated management of weevils, biological control covers a variety of microorganisms and natural enemy resources. For example, insect pathogenic nematodes and fungi have shown stable effects in population control of red palm weevils, and enhancing natural natural enemy populations can continuously suppress pest density (Al-Dosary et al., 2016; Alqahtani et al., 2024). In addition, introducing parasitic wasps to control alfalfa weevils or using specialized weevils to curb the expansion of invasive plants are both effective ecological strategies to reduce the use of pesticides (Rodbell and Wanner, 2023). Combining biological control methods with ecological restoration measures, such as planting native plants, can help restore ecological stability and prevent the spread of pests again.

5.3 Chemical and physical control methods

Chemical control remains the basis of many cropping systems, but its limitations are becoming increasingly apparent. Continuous single-drug use may lead to the rapid evolution of weevils' resistance, disrupting ecological balance and posing health risks (Al-Dosary et al., 2016; Siddiqui et al., 2023). To slow the resistance process, integrated management recommends rotating the use of agents with different mechanisms of action and combining them with other control methods. In field practice, physical control measures have also shown certain effects. For example, operations such as removing insect source residues, standardizing harvesting processes, and regulating field humidity can effectively reduce the breeding environment of pests (Al-Dosary et al., 2016; Anandhi et al., 2020; Tipu et al., 2021). In addition, botanical pesticides, especially products based on natural extracts such as garlic, show development potential in environmentally friendly control, but their field application still requires more systematic empirical verification (Fezza et al., 2024).

5.4 Genetic resistance and integrated agricultural management strategies

Crop resistance breeding is an emerging direction, and breeding work is focusing on the development of insect-resistant varieties of crops such as sweet potatoes and cotton (Wt et al., 2019; Anandhi et al., 2020). Integrated pest management (IPM) integrates cultural, biological, chemical and genetic methods, and can be customized according to local conditions. Successful cases such as the eradication program of the boll weevil in the United States have shown that regional coordinated actions can significantly reduce the use of pesticides and improve the sustainability of prevention and control (Al-Dosary et al., 2016; Alotaibi et al., 2022). The promotion of IPM is affected by farmers’ education level, farm size, and advocacy and training, which highlights the importance of strengthening stakeholder participation and training (Sanz‐Aguilar et al., 2020 ; Alotaibi et al., 2022 ).

6 Policy Recommendations and Future Research Directions

6.1 International Coordination Mechanisms

To deal with invasive weevils, a strong international coordination mechanism is needed, especially strengthening customs quarantine and risk assessment systems. Improving regulatory and plant quarantine frameworks - including strengthening control of live plant transportation and promoting active early detection programs in high-risk areas - is of great significance for preventing new invasions and achieving rapid response (Milosavljević et al., 2018; Al-Dobai, 2019). Successful practices such as the US boll weevil eradication program fully demonstrate the value of multi-level government collaboration, stakeholder participation and regional coordinated management strategies.

6.2 Application prospects of big data and ai in pest monitoring

The synergistic integration of big data analysis and artificial intelligence technology is driving revolutionary changes in the field of pest monitoring. By deploying intelligent sensing devices such as seismic sensors, farmland environments can be dynamically monitored and targeted, significantly reducing the risk of pesticide abuse and optimizing resource utilization. Practice has proved that integrating real-time sensor data into agricultural decision-making systems can effectively improve the effectiveness of prevention and control. Further research needs to explore multi-source data fusion technology, combined with predictive modeling methods, to build a more forward-looking pest early warning and rapid response system (Mendel et al., 2024).

6.3 Research on ecological adaptability and development of genomic tools

The breakthrough progress of high-throughput omics technology - covering genomics, transcriptomics and metagenomics - provides a new perspective for analyzing the ecological adaptation mechanism and genetic basis of resistance of invasive weevils. The improvement of whole genome resources not only helps locate key genes for host recognition, but also reveals the molecular driving factors of species invasion, laying the foundation for the development of precise prevention and control programs and the creation of resistant crop varieties (Engsontia and Satasook, 2021; Mackay-Smith et al., 2021; Manee et al., 2023). Functional genomics research, which needs to be strengthened, should focus on the molecular mechanism analysis and cross-species comparison of key genes, so as to improve the scientificity and predictability of pest and disease control strategies.

6.4 Building a farmland ecosystem resilience framework

Building a resilient agricultural ecosystem requires incorporating biodiversity enhancement and stress resistance into the overall design framework. The adoption of integrated management strategies such as ecological superposition can reduce the dependence on chemical agents while enhancing ecological service functions through multi-level pest control measures. Current research focus should shift to the optimization and verification of complex strategies - including the reconstruction of natural enemy communities, the improvement of habitat heterogeneity and the construction of adaptive management mechanisms - to ensure the long-term stability and self-repair ability of agricultural systems in the face of environmental changes (Cárcamo et al., 2018).

7 Concluding Remarks

The destructive impact of invasive weevils on global agriculture is persistent, widespread and multi-dimensional, threatening not only food production security, but also weakening ecological stability and causing significant economic losses. With their strong environmental adaptability and rapid spread, these pests frequently invade new areas through international trade networks and weak quarantine links, exerting lasting pressure on urban and rural agricultural production systems. Invasive species represented by red palm weevils and cotton boll weevils continue to expand. Their wide range of host crops and deep damage force countries to continue to invest a lot of prevention and control resources.

At present, the collaborative governance model integrating multiple prevention and control strategies has been proven to effectively alleviate the damage caused by weevils. The integrated pest management (IPM) system reduces the population density while reducing the use of highly toxic pesticides by integrating early warning technology, introduction of natural enemies, precision chemical control and optimization of farming systems. Typical cases show that when sensor network monitoring data is linked with farmers' decision-making, and combined with regional IPM actions and public education, the efficiency and economy of prevention and control are significantly improved. The successful experience of the US cotton boll weevil eradication program further verifies that cross-departmental collaboration and community participation mechanisms play an irreplaceable role in achieving sustainable management of pesticide reduction.

The deep integration of cutting-edge technology and ecological wisdom will become the core driving force of the next generation of prevention and control systems. Breakthroughs in genomic tools and intelligent monitoring technologies have not only accelerated basic research on the invasion mechanism of weevils, but also created conditions for the development of gene-targeted prevention and control and dynamic early warning models. Strengthening international collaboration networks - focusing on improving cross-border quarantine standards, risk prediction systems and emergency response protocols - remains a key path to blocking the invasion of new species and curbing the spread of pests. Only by building a resilient agricultural ecology based on biodiversity protection and promoting adaptive management strategies can we fundamentally establish a long-term mechanism to resist invasive weevils.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank MS.Wang for their support in the process of literature compilation.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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