1 Introduction

The African land snail (specifically referring to the East African giant snail Achatina fulica) is a large terrestrial snail belonging to the family Lissachatinidae of the order Lunaticida. Originally classified under the genus Achatina, the latest molecular evidence has placed it under the genus Lissachatina (Bohatá and Patoka, 2023). The adult shell of this species can reach a height of 17 centimeters and is renowned for its large size and rapid growth. In ecology, A. fulica is renowned for its omnivorous nature, capable of feeding on over 500 species of plants, including native plants and crops. Its feeding activities are voracious and highly destructive. This kind of snail is native to the tropical regions of eastern Africa, but has successfully invaded many tropical and subtropical regions around the world thanks to its excellent environmental adaptability (Guo et al., 2019).

Since the 20th century, the African land snail has been spread through various means: (1) human introduction and unintentional carrying, such as being brought into new areas as food, medicine or ornamental pets; (2) Global trade transportation carrying eggs and young snails, such as spreading with logistics in agricultural products, seedlings and cargo packaging (Jing et al., 2015); (3) Natural diffusion within the region, migrating in the local environment with the aid of media such as rainfall, floods and soil transportation. Since its first invasion of Asian countries in the 1930s, A. fulica has rapidly established A presence in South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands and the tropical regions of the Americas (Bohata and Patoka, 2023).

At present, it can be found on almost all continents except Antarctica, causing serious ecological and agricultural problems in more than 50 countries where the invasion occurred (Bohata and Patoka, 2023). For instance, after the first case was discovered in China in 1931, this snail has spread to the provinces in South China. In recent years, it has also been reported in Central and North China, indicating its potential adaptation risk to temperate regions (Tan et al., 2025). The African land snail has drawn significant attention from the global ecological and agricultural fields: on the one hand, it is a strong competitor to many native terrestrial invertebrates and poses a threat to native species; On the other hand, its harm to cash crops leads to reduced yields and economic losses, and it can also spread parasites that endanger public health.

This study will systematically assess the biological and ecological characteristics, invasion routes and typical cases of the African land snail, deeply analyze its impact mechanisms on ecosystems and agriculture, and review the current prevention and control strategies of various countries as well as their effects and challenges. On this basis, the key directions for future research and management are proposed, with the aim of providing a scientific basis for formulating effective control countermeasures for invasive species.

2 The Biological and Ecological Characteristics of the African landsnail

2.1 Morphological characteristics and taxonomic status

The adult shell height of the East African giant snail Achatina fulica is generally 10 to 15 centimeters, and can reach more than 17 centimeters (Guo et al., 2019). Its shell is long and conical, with mottled patterns of brown and yellow stripes, which is conducive to camouflage in vegetation (Figure 1). The shell color of young snails is relatively light and gradually deepens as they grow. This species belongs to the class Gastropoda of the phylum Mollusca and has traditionally been classified under the genus Achatina. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that it is actually an independent genus of Lissachatina, and thus is often referred to as "Lissachatina fulica" (Odaibo and Olayinka, 2019). As a lung snail, its anatomical structure features typical lung sacs for air respiration. The East African giant snail secretes a large amount of mucus on its body surface, which helps to maintain moisture, defend against predation and glide. The adult snail has a grayish-brown body color, thick feet, and can reach twice the length of the shell when extended.

Figure 1 Apertural and abaperural views of shell of Achatina fulica collected From Itori, Ogun State, Nigeria (Adopted from Odaibo and Olayinka, 2019) Image caption: Scale bar = 1.0cm (Adopted from Odaibo and Olayinka, 2019)

In terms of taxonomic status, A. fulica belongs to the Achatinidae family and is one of the largest species in this family in terms of both size and ecological impact (Bohata and Patoka, 2023). The Invasive Species Specialist Group of IUCN has included it in the list of "The 100 Most Harmful Invasive Species in the World" (Jing et al., 2015). This prominent taxonomic status and morphological characteristics provide a basis for identification, monitoring and public publicity, but its concealment in nature and high reproductive capacity also increase the difficulty of early detection and control.

2.2 Life history and reproductive capacity

The life cycle of the African land snail is characterized by a high reproduction rate, and it grows rapidly at each stage of its life cycle. The individual is hermaphroditic, and the same individual has both male and female reproductive organs. Usually, two individuals mate to increase genetic diversity, but self-fertilization reproduction can also occur in the absence of a mate (Ramdwar et al., 2024). The breeding season is almost uninterrupted throughout the year and is particularly active in warm and humid conditions (De Almeida, 2013). Each adult snail can lay hundreds or even thousands of eggs in a year. Studies have shown that in an ideal environment, A single A. fulica can lay 200 to 1,800 eggs per year, and the hatching survival rate of the eggs can reach 90% (Sika et al., 2023).

In terms of lifespan, the lifespan of the East African giant snail in the wild is generally 3 to 5 years, and it can reach 8 to 9 years under captivity conditions (Ramdwar et al., 2024). The combination of high reproductive capacity and long lifespan makes it difficult for its population to naturally decline once it is established. Especially in invasive areas lacking the restraint of natural enemies, the population size often grows exponentially, exerting continuous pressure on the local ecology and agricultural system. This "r countermeasure" style of life history is precisely the key reason why it has become an invasive pest.

2.3 Ecological adaptability

One of the key reasons why the African land snail has successfully invaded many places lies in its wide ecological adaptability. This species has a relatively wide tolerance range for temperature and humidity. Research reports: A. fulica's most suitable activity temperature is 15-38℃, and soil moisture is 45%~85% (Albuquerque et al., 2009). In the tropical regions where the temperature and humidity are high all year round, snails are almost active and reproduce throughout the year. A. fulica is not picky about food resources and shows A broad appetite. Its diet includes young leaves, fruits, bark, flowers, vegetables, as well as humus, moss, fungi, etc. (Santos et al., 2018). This diverse feeding ability means that no matter what kind of plants the invaded area provides, it almost always has means to utilize them.

The adaptability of A. Fulica is also reflected in its tolerance to pollution and diseases. Studies have found that its intestinal flora has a certain tolerance to heavy metals and antibiotics, enabling it to survive in urban polluted environments. More notably, climate warming is expanding its potential distribution area (Guo et al., 2019). Model predictions show that against the backdrop of global warming, the originally overly cold temperate regions will partially become suitable for A. fulica to survive. However, this snail still cannot survive for a long time in extremely low temperatures, and the continuous freezing climate will cause its death. This to some extent restricts its diffusion to higher latitudes.

3 Invasion Routes and Transmission Mechanisms

3.1 Communication driven by human activities

Human intentional or unintentional behavior is the primary factor for the cross-regional spread of land snails in Africa. Historically, many long-distance transmissions of this species have been directly attributed to human activities. In agricultural and horticultural routes, during international agricultural product trade and the transportation of plant seedlings, snails and their eggs are often carried and spread as "pollutants". Another example is the intentional introduction and release: In some regions, the East African giant snail was once regarded as a potential food source or commercial breeding target, and was introduced for use in meat protein, medicine, etc. (Sarma et al., 2015; Goldyn et al., 2016). Furthermore, snails or eggs can migrate over long distances by hiding in the crevices of transportation vehicles such as containers, vehicle tires, and cargo ship ballast (Vijayan et al., 2022). During World War II in history, the Japanese army carried A. fulica as A food source on the Pacific battlefield. After the war, these snails escaped into the local area and then spread.

3.2 Natural diffusion mechanism

In addition to long-distance cross-border transmission, in the local areas where the invasion occurs, the African land snail can also naturally spread by relying on its own ability or environmental media. A. fulica has A certain ability of active crawling and diffusion. Although adult snails move slowly, they can move at a speed of about 1 to 2 meters per hour at night. Young snails can crawl a longer distance. Natural forces such as rainfall and runoff can help snails migrate passively. During heavy rain and floods, a large number of snails drift along with surface runoff and may cross the terrain barrier and enter new watersheds and fields (Purnama and Salwiyah, 2022).

Wildlife vectors promote the spread to a certain extent. Some birds and amphibians may accidentally eat snail eggs or attach snail larvae to their feet, thus taking them to new locations. However, the contribution of such dissemination is relatively limited. Soil movement can unintentionally transfer snails. Activities such as ploughing farmland, digging at construction sites, and transporting soil to gardens, if the soil contains snails or egg clumps, can also form new infection sites after being transferred to new sites for on-site hatching and growth (Purnama and Salwiyah, 2022).

3.3 Typical global intrusion cases

On the global spread map of the African land snail, the invasion process in many regions is representative. South Asia and Southeast Asia were among the earliest regions invaded by A. fulica. India recorded the invasion of this species at the end of the 19th century. At that time, someone introduced it from Mauritius to a private garden in Kolkata, but unexpectedly, it quickly escaped and spread. In the middle of the 20th century, snails had spread throughout most states of India, causing extensive damage to crops and gardens (Rasal et al., 2022).

The tropical islands of Oceania, due to their ecological isolation, lack resistance of local terrestrial mollusks to large snails. Once A. fulica invades, it often leads to disastrous consequences. In countries in the South Pacific such as Fiji and Samoa, African snails emerged one after another in the middle of the 20th century, consuming large amounts of crops like sweet potatoes, papayas and bananas on the islands, which dealt a heavy blow to the economies of these island nations that relied on agriculture for their livelihood.

The African land snail was introduced to South America at the end of the last century and has spread rapidly in Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador and other countries in recent years (Goldyn et al., 2016). The situation in Brazil is particularly severe: in the late 1980s, merchants introduced it for consumption, but it dissipated into the natural environment within less than ten years. Due to the hot and rainy climate in most parts of Brazil, which is very suitable for snail growth, the population of A. fulica has grown explosively. By the 2010s, this snail had appeared in 23 of Brazil's 26 states and was known as a "national pest". In places such as the state of Sao Paulo in Brazil, the vegetable crops on small farms have been affected and reduced by up to 30%, causing great distress to farmers (Silva et al., 2022).

4 Impacts at the Ecosystem Level

4.1 Competition with native species and loss of biodiversity

As a dominant invasive species, A.fulica often lacks natural enemies to control its introduction site, and thus uses various competitive mechanisms to squeeze out local species. First, there is food competition: The terrestrial snails in Africa have an extremely wide diet, consuming a large amount of tender leaves, fruits and organic debris of plants. The food resources that local terrestrial snails and other herbivorous invertebrates (such as slugs, beetle larvae, etc.) originally relied on have been largely consumed by them, resulting in a decline in the population of local species (Raut and Barker, 2002). Secondly, there is spatial competition: The East African giant snail is large in size and numerous in number, occupying many habitats on the ground and in vegetation. Local small mollusks (such as tree snails and flat snails) are more vulnerable to predation or environmental stress due to the inability to find sufficient habitats, and thus gradually disappear (Andreazzi et al., 2017). In addition, A. fulica can secrete A large amount of mucus-labeled domains. The mucus remaining on its activity path may carry pheromones, which interfere with and repel the normal activities and mating of local snails.

4.2 Changes in vegetation and ecosystem structure

As a herbivorous invasive species, the African land snail's damage to vegetation directly affects the structural and functional balance of the ecosystem. In the forest floor and farmland ecosystems, A. fulica feeds heavily on the seedlings, tender leaves and fruits of various herbaceous and woody plants. This will lead to an increase in the mortality rate of plant seedlings, impede vegetation renewal, and ultimately alter the species composition and hierarchical structure of the community. A. fulica's preference for certain specific plants may trigger ecological cascade effects (Raut and Barker, 2002; Andreazzi et al., 2017). For instance, in Hawaii, snails feed on both invasive weeds and native seedlings, but they prefer native leguminous plants rich in tender buds. As a result, the regeneration of such plants fails, and snail-tolerant exotic weeds take the opportunity to spread, leading to the evolution of vegetation types towards a single type.

The massive feeding and excretion of the giant snail have altered the physical and chemical properties of the soil and the microbial community. After feeding on plants, they produce a large amount of feces, which increase soil organic matter and nutrients in the short term. However, excessive accumulation over a long period of time may lead to an imbalance in the soil nitrogen cycle. In addition, the sharp increase in the number of herbivorous snails may also disturb the food web relationship. In areas lacking snail predators, A. fulica occupies the energy positions that originally belonged to herbivorous insects and snails, while not being effectively utilized by higher trophic levels themselves, resulting in the asymmetry of energy flow in the food web (Da Silva et al., 2022).

4.3 Potential risks as a vector for pathogen transmission

In addition to ecological and agricultural damage, the African land snail is also an important intermediate host for many pathogenic organisms, posing a potential threat to human and animal health. The most representative one is its relationship with Angiostrongylus cantonensis. A. fulica is one of the ideal hosts for the larvae of Angiostrongylus cantonensis. When snails feed on the eggs of nematodes in the feces of infected rodents, the larvae can develop to the third stage of infection within the snails (Figure 2). If humans consume raw or mistakenly eat snail tissues with larvae (such as small snails in vegetable gardens, mucus-contaminated vegetables and fruits, etc.), the larvae can penetrate the human brain and cause eosinophilic meningoencephalitis, commonly known as "mouse lung worm disease" (Lima et al., 2020; Rangel et al., 2024). The surface and mucus of the African land snail may also be attached with bacteria, fungi and plant pathogens. The research isolated the zoonotic bacteria carried by it, such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella, as well as the spores of plant pathogenic fungi like downy mildew. These pathogens spread as snails crawl in the environment, which may increase the risk of infection in humans and animals as well as crop diseases.

Figure 2 Larvae of (A) Angiostrongylus cantonensis; (B, C) Cruzia tentaculata; (D) A free-leaving nematode (Adopted from Rangel et al., 2024)

5 Agricultural and Economic Impact Assessment

5.1 Types and degrees of crop damage

A. Fulica feeds on a wide variety of plants, including vegetables, fruits, food crops, flowers and young trees. They use their powerful teeth and tongues to scrape and eat the surface tissues of leaves and stems. Common symptoms of damage are that the leaves of crops are gnawed into holes or only the veins remain, the tender stems of seedlings are gnawed off to the ground, and large areas of shriveled wounds appear on the surface of fruits. Leafy vegetables (such as lettuce, Chinese cabbage and cabbage) are often the first to be eaten up by snails at night, leaving only the remaining plants. The damage caused by African land snails to crops is both broad-spectrum and destructive. The forms of damage to different crops vary slightly, but the common consequence is a decline in yield and deterioration in quality. For small-scale growers, snail invasion often means a devastating blow: In small-scale farming regions such as Cuba and Thailand, snail outbreaks have led to many farmers losing their harvest or even giving up farming (Thiengo et al., 2007; Cazarin-Oliveira et al., 2021).

5.2 The impact of planting systems and facility agriculture

African land snails not only harm open-field farmlands, but also have an impact on facility agriculture and urban greening systems. Moreover, they are more likely to cause disasters due to their closed environment. Greenhouse and other facility agricultural systems provide A constant-temperature and high-humidity environment, which is almost a "paradise" for A. fulica. In terms of urban green Spaces and horticulture, A. fulica is often seen in urban parks, campuses, and community gardens. They hide during the day and feed at night, gnawing on the leaves and flowers of ornamental plants, which damages the landscape and pollutes the lawns and walkways, affecting citizens' activities. The impact on the planting system is also reflected in the disruption of the agricultural ecological balance. The massive feeding and excretion of snails alter the microenvironment in the field, leading to an increase in some secondary pests (such as slugs and subterranean termites) due to ecological interaction, or causing a decline in plant resistance and making them more susceptible to diseases. African land snails exert continuous and high-intensity pressure on modern intensive farming systems (Jayashankar et al.,2013; Jing et al., 2015).

5.3 Estimation of economic losses and control costs

To assess the economic impact of the invasion of land snails in Africa, both direct losses and indirect costs need to be taken into account simultaneously. The direct losses mainly consist of the economic value loss caused by the reduction in crop yields and the decline in their quality. According to case data from various countries: In the tropical regions of Brazil, the yield of vegetables and fruits affected by snails is generally between 20% and 30%, and some small farms even have no harvest at all. The Indian state of Kerala has reported a significant increase in vegetable prices during years of snail outbreaks, due to intensified field losses and supply shortages. For economically underdeveloped invaded areas, these prevention and control costs are often unaffordable. In addition to the losses to agriculture itself, the invasion of snails has also brought about social and economic impacts: for instance, residents' courtyards being disturbed by snails require extra effort to clean up, and scenic spots and municipal greening increase management costs to maintain their image. In terms of public health, the medical burden has increased due to the transmission of diseases by snails, etc. Although these hidden costs are difficult to calculate precisely, they do increase the overall economic cost of invasive species (Jayashankar et al.,2013; Jing et al., 2015).

6 Prevention and Control Strategies and Management Challenges

6.1 Current control methods and effect evaluation

At present, the prevention and control of A. fulica mainly include three major methods: physical, chemical and biological, which are usually combined into comprehensive management. In terms of physical methods, manual capture is the most direct approach. In many areas, community residents are mobilized to pick up snails by hand in the early morning or evening and destroy them in a centralized manner. This method is simple and easy to implement and can immediately reduce the number of snails, but it is labor-intensive and time-consuming in densely populated areas and large areas of farmland, and is often difficult to completely eradicate. In terms of chemical control, commonly used chemical agents include metal aldehydes, formaldehyde mixtures, and more environmentally friendly iron phosphate baits, etc. When these agents are scattered in the areas where snails are active, they can lure the snails to eat them and cause poisoning and death. At present, A more feasible biological approach is to utilize local natural enemies or pathogens: in some areas, local birds and rodents have been found to prey on A. fulica, but this is not sufficient to control its population. Another approach is to utilize the technique of luring enemies, that is, to attract natural enemies of snails to inhabit and hunt. For instance, India deliberately created a microenvironment for toads and lizards, hoping that they would feed on snail larvae, but the effect was limited (Abog et al., 2012; Patil andJagtap, 2022; Magar et al., 2023).

6.2 Policy supervision and public participation mechanism

The management of invasive species is not only a technical issue, but also involves policies, regulations and public participation. Many countries have formulated specific regulations and action plans to deal with the invasion of land snails in Africa. For instance, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has listed A. fulica as A species prohibited from entering the country by the federal government and implements a zero-tolerance policy in customs quarantine. Any act of carrying or mailing snails is illegal. Sound regulatory policies can prevent snails from entering new countries through trade and travel channels. However, there are still some deficiencies and challenges at the policy level: law enforcement and implementation need to be strengthened, and cross-departmental collaboration remains to be improved. Moreover, international cooperation is equally crucial. Invasive species know no borders. Only through joint prevention and control at the regional level can we achieve twice the result with half the effort. Public participation plays an indispensable role in the management of A. fulica. The community public is the first line of force in discovering and eliminating snails. Many successful experiences have shown that enhancing awareness through public education can significantly improve the effectiveness of prevention and control. Public participation also includes timely reporting of the epidemic. Governments often set up hotlines for invasive species or online reporting platforms, encouraging the public to take photos and upload them immediately or contact the relevant departments once they find suspected African snails (Jayashankar et al.,2013; Jing et al., 2015).

6.3 Challenges faced and future directions

There are problems such as the difficulty in early detection and rapid response to prevention and control strategies and management challenges, the weak sustainability of prevention and control technologies, global warming and the expansion of invasion ranges, and the impact of socio-economic factors on management effectiveness. Although there are already various measures and policies to deal with the invasion of land snails in Africa, there are still many challenges in actual management, which require further efforts and innovative directions in the future. The future direction lies in: developing more efficient and environmentally friendly control technologies, improving policies, regulations and monitoring systems, strengthening public education and international cooperation, and making full use of new technological means (such as remote sensing, big data and model prediction) to assist in decision-making. The control of the African land snail as an invasive pest is a protracted battle. There are both biological challenges and management and social challenges in between. Only by taking multiple measures simultaneously can the threat to ecological agriculture brought by this invasive species be gradually alleviated and ultimately defeated (Santos et al., 2018; Leite et al., 2022).

7 Case Analysis

7.1 Intrusion cases in Asia

A. Fulica's invasions in China were mainly concentrated in the southern provinces. Take Guangdong Province as an example. Since the 1990s, snail infestations first broke out in banana plantations near cities in the Pearl River Delta region, and then spread to urban green Spaces and vegetable gardens. In cities like Guangzhou and Shenzhen, groups of large snails could be seen crawling along the streets in the early morning, causing public panic. Guangdong's prevention and control strategy mainly focuses on community mobilization, combined with the regular application of low-toxicity baits. Carry out the "Little Snail Remover" activity in primary and secondary schools to encourage students to participate in snail control both on campus and at home. After years of efforts, the density of snails in the urban center has decreased, but in the urban-rural fringe and urban and rural vegetable fields, due to the complex environment, snails still stubbornly exist. Cases in southern China show that in tropical climates, African snails are highly prone to taking root and multiplying. Early detection and large-scale mass prevention and control are the keys. Mass movements supported by the government can effectively curb the rampant snails in cities. However, institutionalized measures are still needed to maintain the long-term effect, such as incorporating them into daily patriotic health campaigns, etc. (Jing et al., 2015; Dumidae et al., 2021).

7.2 Agricultural disaster cases in Pacific Islands

Hawaii was one of the earlier regions in the Pacific islands to be invaded by A. fulica. The first invasion occurred in 1936, when snails were brought to Oahu by Japanese cargo ships. By the 1940s, snails were multiplying in large numbers in Honolulu, attacking papaya plantations and garden plants. The authorities in Hawaii launched an eradication operation as early as 1947, including manual collection and distribution of drugs, and even the use of prisoners to assist in the clearance, striving to declare the eradication once every two decades. But in reality, it was not completely eradicated. A small number of snails survived in remote corners and gradually regained their population. By the late 1960s, there were multiple outbreaks, and traces of snails were found on all the islands. With no alternative, the authorities introduced the rose Wolf snail as a biological control in 1955. However, as mentioned earlier, this led to the mass extinction of local tree snails, but had little control over A. fulica. Ultimately, Hawaii abandoned biological control and reverted to a control model mainly based on manual and chemical methods. The lesson from Hawaii is that biological control should be carried out with caution and not at the expense of local biodiversity. The positive experience is that even if eradication fails, continuous control still makes sense and at least protects major farmlands from devastating blows (Raut and Barker, 2002).

7.3 Rapid spread and control experience in Latin America

As the largest country in Latin America, the invasion of A. fulica in Brazil was rapid and on an astonishing scale. This snail first appeared around 1988 and is presumed to have been brought to Parana State by Japanese merchants for consumption and breeding. After that, the aquaculture industry failed, and a large number of snails were abandoned in the wild and began to spread. Due to Brazil's diverse climate, suitable habitats can be found in almost all climate zones, from the subtropical zone to the equator. In just over a decade, snails have spread across most of Brazil: a survey in 2005 found that snails were distributed in 23 states. The government declared a national alert in 2005 and established an interdepartmental working group to coordinate the response. In major agricultural states such as Sao Paulo, the focus is on spreading pesticides around farmlands and orchards, and legislation is enacted to ban the trade of snails. The health department has also intervened, reminding the public to enhance food cleaning to prevent meningitis. The Brazilian experience emphasizes the combination of central policies and local implementation. National legislation provides a unified framework, and each state can adjust its strategy according to its circumstances. For instance, agricultural states focus on protecting farmland, while tourist states enhance the clean-up of scenic spots, etc. Meanwhile, the scientific and educational communities have played an important role (Silva et al., 2020; Cazarin-Oliveira et al., 2021; Rangel et al., 2024).

8 Concluding Remarks

The African land snail (Achatina fulica), as an emerging global invasive pest, poses a serious threat to the stability of the ecosystem and agricultural production. Its typical "invasion-successful" characteristics - high fertility, wide adaptability and strong competitiveness - enable it to expand rapidly after breaking through geographical barriers, exerting a profound impact on biodiversity, ecological balance and human health. These hazards are mainly manifested as the replacement or extinction of local species, the destruction of vegetation and soil environments, the increased risk of pathogen transmission, as well as the reduction in crop yields and the decline in crop quality. They are particularly severe in islands and tropical regions and may even trigger ecological disasters and food crises.

Although some countries (such as the United States) have basically prevented their entry through strict quarantine measures, in most of the invaded areas, achieving complete eradication is almost impossible. The current comprehensive prevention and control measures have to some extent slowed down the frequency and intensity of snail outbreaks, but they still face problems such as difficulty in early detection, side effects of chemical control, insufficient public participation and weak policy implementation. There is still a gap from completely eliminating the threat. Therefore, it is urgent to promote both technological innovation and social governance simultaneously and explore more efficient and sustainable management paths.

Future prevention and control work should focus on five key areas: 1) Utilize environmental DNA and remote sensing technology to enhance monitoring capabilities and establish a global early warning network; 2) Develop new biological control methods, including ecological prevention and control measures such as the utilization of natural enemies and pheromone interference; 3) Develop highly efficient and low-toxicity snail-killing agents from natural sources and assess environmental risks; 4) Improve the legal system, strengthen public education, and build a community prevention and control network; 5) Conduct multi-disciplinary cross-research, assess the effectiveness of prevention and control, and explore ways of resource utilization. Through technological innovation (such as increasing the detection rate by 60% through eDNA monitoring) and strategy optimization (reducing costs by 35% through community participation), an integrated management system covering risk assessment, ecological prevention and control, drug research and development, and social collaboration is constructed. The key point is to balance the control effect and ecological security. For instance, in biological control, risks need to be evaluated, and in chemical control, drug resistance needs to be controlled.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the peer reviewers for their continued support throughout the development of this study.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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