1 Introduction

Reptiles, a diverse group of ectothermic vertebrates, play crucial roles in ecosystems as predators and prey, helping to maintain the balance of various ecological communities. They inhabit a wide range of environments, from tropical rainforests and temperate forests to arid deserts and wetlands. This diversity in habitat and behavior makes reptiles excellent indicators of environmental changes, including those induced by climate change. Climate change poses significant threats to reptile diversity through a combination of rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, sea level rise, and increased frequency of extreme weather events. These changes can directly impact reptiles’ physiological processes, reproductive success, and survival rates. For instance, many reptiles, such as sea turtles, exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination, where the sex of the offspring is determined by the incubation temperature of the eggs. Rising temperatures skew sex ratios towards females, potentially leading to population imbalances (Patrício et al., 2018). However, many reptile species are currently facing threats from habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change (Biber et al., 2023). 

Climate change, driven by anthropogenic activities, is causing shifts in temperature, precipitation patterns, and sea levels. These changes are impacting biodiversity by altering habitats and ecosystems. Reptiles, being ectothermic (cold-blooded) animals, are particularly vulnerable to climate change as their physiological processes are highly temperature-dependent. Rising temperatures can affect their reproductive cycles, sex ratios, and habitat suitability, leading to declines in population and species richness (Dubos et al., 2021).

This study aims to assess how climate change will impact reptile diversity globally. By examining changes in habitat suitability, species distributions, and population dynamics, we aim to understand the broader implications for reptile biodiversity. We will explore various predictive models and scenarios to forecast the future impacts of climate change on reptiles. These models will help identify potential shifts in species ranges and the emergence of new suitable habitats, providing insights into how reptiles may adapt or be threatened by changing climatic conditions (Carter and Janzen, 2021). Identifying knowledge gaps is crucial for guiding future research. This review will highlight areas where data is lacking, such as the physiological responses of reptiles to climate change, the interaction between climate and other anthropogenic pressures, and the need for more comprehensive, long-term studies. Future research directions will be proposed to address these gaps and improve conservation strategies for reptiles (Dayananda et al., 2021).

2 Current Status of Reptile Diversity

2.1 Global distribution of reptiles

Reptiles inhabit a variety of biogeographic regions across the globe, including tropical rainforests, temperate forests, deserts, wetlands, grasslands, and coastal areas. Each region supports a unique assemblage of reptile species, adapted to local climatic and ecological conditions. For example, tropical rainforests in the Amazon Basin and Southeast Asia host a high diversity of reptiles, including numerous species of snakes, lizards, and turtles. These ecosystems provide a variety of microhabitats and abundant food resources, which are essential for supporting diverse reptile communities (Aguilar-López et al., 2021). In contrast, arid regions such as the Sahara Desert and the Australian Outback are home to reptiles that have evolved specialized adaptations to survive extreme temperatures and scarce water resources. Species such as the horned lizard (Phrynosoma spp.) and various geckos exhibit behaviors and physiological traits that allow them to thrive in these harsh environments. Coastal and wetland habitats, like the mangroves of Southeast Asia and the Everglades in the United States, support reptiles such as crocodiles, sea turtles, and water snakes, which rely on these ecosystems for breeding, foraging, and shelter.

Hotspots of reptile diversity are regions that support exceptionally high numbers of species and often include many endemics. Notable hotspots include Madagascar, Australia, Southeast Asia, Central America, and the Caribbean. Madagascar, for instance, is renowned for its unique reptile fauna, with over 90% of its species found nowhere else on Earth. This includes chameleons, geckos, and snakes that have diversified in isolation over millions of years (Nordstrom et al., 2022). Australia is another significant hotspot, harboring about 10% of the world's reptile species. The continent’s diverse habitats, ranging from tropical rainforests in Queensland to arid deserts in the interior, support a wide variety of reptiles, including skinks, monitors, and venomous snakes. The recent comprehensive assessment of Australian squamates highlighted the importance of this region for reptile conservation. Southeast Asia and Central America are also critical areas for reptile diversity. The rainforests and islands of Southeast Asia are home to numerous species of snakes, lizards, and turtles, many of which are threatened by habitat loss and overexploitation. Central America, particularly regions like the Selva Zoque in Mexico, hosts a rich reptile fauna that includes many endemic species (Aguilar-López et al., 2021).

2.2 Key factors influencing reptile diversity

Reptile diversity is significantly influenced by habitat preferences and ecological niches. Different species are adapted to specific environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and availability of prey. For example, arboreal lizards like chameleons and geckos thrive in forested environments where they can exploit vertical spaces and abundant insect prey. In contrast, terrestrial species such as tortoises and ground-dwelling lizards are adapted to life on the forest floor or open grasslands (Meiri and Chapple, 2016). The Liolaemus genus in South America is a prime example of ecological diversity. These lizards inhabit a wide range of environments, from lowland deserts to high-altitude Andean regions, exhibiting various adaptations to their specific habitats. This diversity in ecological niches allows for the coexistence of multiple species within the same geographic area, contributing to high local diversity (Figure 1) (Olave et al., 2017).

Figure 1 the distribution of different lizards in the Andes region of South America (Adopted from Olave et al., 2017) Image caption: The main map displays various geographical features, with colored circles representing the locations of different species. Each color corresponds to a specific species, and the circle sizes are proportional to the average snout-vent length (SVL) of each lineage. The phylogenetic tree on the left shows the evolutionary relationships between the species, divided into two main clades (C1 and C2). The legend in the lower right lists the species names and their corresponding colors, such as L. hermannunezi (red) and L. loboi (yellow). An inset map provides broader geographical context, highlighting the specific area covered by the main map, with arrows and an “N” marking the orientation (Adapted from Olave et al., 2017)

Life history traits, such as reproductive strategies, growth rates, and lifespan, play crucial roles in shaping reptile diversity. Species with different reproductive strategies can occupy various niches and reduce competition. For instance, some lizards exhibit oviparity, laying eggs that hatch outside the mother’s body, while others are viviparous, giving birth to live young. These reproductive strategies are often adapted to specific environmental conditions. Viviparous species, for example, are more common in colder climates where eggs might not develop properly outside the mother’s body (Meiri and Chapple, 2016). Other important life history traits include body size, clutch size, and frequency of reproduction. Larger species, such as the Komodo dragon, have different ecological requirements and roles compared to smaller species like geckos. Reproductive traits, such as the number of eggs laid per clutch and the frequency of reproduction, can also influence population dynamics and resilience to environmental changes (Meiri and Chapple, 2016).

2.3 Threats to reptile diversity

Habitat loss and fragmentation are the most significant threats to reptile diversity. The conversion of natural landscapes for agriculture, urban development, and infrastructure projects leads to the destruction of habitats that reptiles depend on. This fragmentation of habitats can isolate populations, making it difficult for reptiles to find mates, forage, and avoid predators. For instance, deforestation in Southeast Asia and the Amazon Basin has severely impacted the habitats of many forest-dwelling reptiles, leading to declines in populations and local extinctions (Nordstrom et al., 2022).

Pollution, invasive species, and overexploitation further threaten reptile populations. Chemical pollutants, such as pesticides and industrial runoff, can contaminate water and soil, affecting the health and reproductive success of reptiles. Invasive species, such as rats, cats, and predatory birds, pose significant threats by preying on native reptiles and competing for resources. Overexploitation, driven by the pet trade, traditional medicine, and consumption, leads to the decline of many reptile species. For example, the trade in live reptiles has led to significant declines in populations of many species, including turtles and lizards, across their native ranges.

3 Climate Change and Its Potential Impacts on Reptiles

3.1 Temperature changes

Rising temperatures significantly impact reptile physiology and behavior due to their ectothermic nature. Increased temperatures can affect metabolic rates, reproductive success, and survival. Reptiles such as lizards may exhibit changes in activity patterns, with some species showing reduced activity during the hottest parts of the day to avoid overheating. Additionally, elevated temperatures can influence sex determination in species with temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD), leading to skewed sex ratios and potential population declines (Biber et al., 2023).

Studies on the rainforest sunskink (Lampropholis coggeri) show high trait lability driven by acclimation and local adaptation. This suggests that some tropical ectotherms may rapidly shift climate-relevant traits to cope with rising temperatures (Llewelyn et al., 2018). Sea turtles adjust their nesting timing and site selection in response to changing temperatures. These behavioral adaptations help buffer the effects of temperature on embryo development and hatchling survival, although the effectiveness of these responses under extreme conditions remains uncertain (Du et al., 2023).

3.2 Precipitation patterns

Altered precipitation patterns due to climate change can lead to changes in habitat suitability for reptiles. Increased rainfall may expand suitable habitats for some species, while prolonged droughts can reduce water availability, impacting species dependent on moist environments. Changes in water levels in wetlands can affect amphibious reptiles, altering their breeding and foraging habitats (Dayananda et al., 2021).

Changes in rainfall patterns impact the distribution and abundance of amphibious reptiles. For instance, fluctuations in water levels can alter breeding sites for species such as the crocodile lizard (Shinisaurus crocodilurus), affecting their reproductive success and population dynamics (Zhang et al., 2022). Desert reptiles, like the Australian arid zone skink (Liopholis kintorei), face increased surface activity with climate warming. Their burrow systems provide significant thermal and hydric buffering, highlighting the importance of behavioral adaptations in mitigating climate impacts (Moore et al., 2018).

3.3 Extreme weather events

Extreme weather events such as hurricanes, floods, and droughts pose severe threats to reptile populations by causing direct mortality, habitat destruction, and long-term ecological changes. These events can lead to population declines and disrupt ecosystem dynamics (Winter et al., 2016). Hurricanes’ strong winds and floods can destroy nests and juveniles, leading to the death of new generations. Droughts can deplete water sources and reduce vegetation, making it difficult for reptiles to find food and water. Additionally, extreme weather events can alter predator-prey relationships, increasing predation pressure. The combined effects of these factors can result in long-term population declines and may lead to local extinctions of certain species, severely impacting the balance and functionality of ecosystems.

Island reptile populations are particularly vulnerable to cyclones, which can cause significant mortality and habitat loss. The impact on endemic species, such as those in Madagascar, can be devastating due to their limited ranges and specialized habitats (El-Gabbas et al., 2016). Heatwaves can lead to mass mortality events in reptiles, particularly in species with low thermal tolerance. For example, high temperatures have been shown to cause significant mortality in populations of the common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) in urban heat islands (Hall and Warner, 2018).

3.4 Sea level rise

Sea level rise threatens coastal and marine reptiles by inundating nesting sites, altering coastal habitats, and increasing salinity in estuarine environments. These changes can reduce the availability of suitable habitats for nesting and foraging, impacting species such as sea turtles and estuarine crocodiles (Dayananda et al., 2021). Additionally, sea level rise leads to coastal erosion, further diminishing the nesting grounds essential for the reproduction of these reptiles. For example, sea turtles depend on specific beach conditions for successful egg incubation, and erosion can expose nests to higher risks of flooding and predation.

Rising sea levels can submerge nesting beaches, forcing sea turtles to relocate to less optimal sites. This can result in lower hatchling success and increased vulnerability to predators (Carter and Janzen, 2021). Saltwater intrusion into estuarine habitats can alter the composition of reptile communities and affect species such as the estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). Changes in salinity levels can impact their distribution and survival (Figure 2) (Biber et al., 2023). Additionally, the loss of coastal vegetation such as mangroves, which provide critical habitat for many reptile species, exacerbates these impacts. Mangroves serve as important breeding and nursery grounds for species like the marine iguana and various sea snakes. The degradation of these habitats due to rising sea levels and increased storm surges can lead to a decline in reptile populations dependent on these environments for food and shelter.

Figure 2 (a) Map of projected global terrestrial reptile species richness (1995), (b) frequency of species richness by taxonomic group (lizard, snake, turtle and total), with mean values indicated by vertical lines, and (c) increase, (d) decrease, (e) net change and (f) relative change (as a percentage) in reptile species richness for all modelled reptile species (n = 6296) for the year 2080 under a medium representative concentration pathway (RCP6.0) and a medium dispersal scenario (d/8) (Adopted from Biber et al., 2023) Image caption: Results are presented as the ensemble mean across the four global circulation models (GCMs) and two model algorithms [generalized additive model (GAM) and generalized boosted regression model (GBM)] considered. All maps are based on 0.5° × 0.5° grid cells, which have been projected to the Mollweide equal-area projection (EPSG: 54009). Grey areas are regions for which no projections are available. Note that the colour scales differ among the individual panels (Adopted from Biber et al., 2023)

Furthermore, the physical changes to coastal landscapes can disrupt the thermoregulatory behavior of reptiles. For example, sea turtles rely on specific temperature ranges in their nesting beaches to ensure proper incubation of eggs. As suitable nesting sites become scarce or are altered by climate change, the reproductive success of these species can be significantly compromised. This, coupled with increased predation and human disturbance in new nesting areas, presents a major challenge to their conservation.

4 Predictive Models and Climate Change Scenarios

4.1 Overview of predictive models

Predictive models are essential for understanding how climate change will affect biodiversity. These models can be broadly categorized into three types: correlative models, mechanistic models, and hybrid models. Correlative models, such as species distribution models (SDMs), use statistical relationships between species occurrences and environmental variables to predict future distributions. Mechanistic models, including climate envelope models, incorporate physiological and ecological processes to predict how species will respond to environmental changes. Hybrid models combine elements of both correlative and mechanistic approaches to leverage the strengths of each.

Correlative models are relatively easy to implement and can handle large datasets, but they often fail to capture complex biological interactions and evolutionary processes (Wright et al., 2016). Mechanistic models provide detailed insights into species’ responses to environmental changes but require extensive data on physiological and ecological processes, which can be difficult to obtain (Kearney et al., 2018). Hybrid models offer more comprehensive predictions by integrating aspects of both correlative and mechanistic models; however, they also require extensive data and sophisticated modeling techniques.

4.2 Species distribution models (SDMs)

SDMs predict future species distributions based on current relationships between species occurrences and environmental variables. These models are particularly useful for identifying potential range shifts due to climate change. By analyzing current distribution data and environmental conditions, SDMs can forecast suitable habitats under future climate scenarios, helping to identify species most vulnerable to climate change. This information guides habitat restoration, species translocation, and protected area planning, enhancing species’ chances of survival in changing climate conditions.

Desert lizards, such as those in the Chihuahuan Desert, may experience range contractions due to increasing temperatures and reduced water availability. For instance, projections for the horned lizard (Phrynosoma spp.) indicate significant habitat loss under future climate scenarios (Lara-Resendiz et al., 2015). SDMs for forest-dwelling snakes suggest that these species may shift their ranges to higher elevations or more northern latitudes in response to warming temperatures. For example, the distribution of certain tropical snakes is expected to move towards cooler, more suitable habitats (Nori et al., 2016).

4.3 Climate envelope models

Climate envelope models define the range of climatic conditions within which a species can survive and reproduce. These models are used to predict how shifts in climate variables will alter the distribution of suitable habitats for species. Tropical reptiles, such as those in the Amazon rainforest, are predicted to experience significant shifts in suitable habitats. For example, projections indicate that the habitat of the common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) will move to higher elevations or more temperate regions as temperatures rise (Levy et al., 2015). Similarly, other species that are highly specialized to specific climatic conditions may face the risk of reduced habitat availability, leading to potential declines in population sizes and genetic diversity.

As the climate changes, these models also suggest that some lowland species may be forced into increasingly fragmented and limited areas of suitable habitat, particularly in mountainous regions where they can no longer migrate upward to escape rising temperatures. This scenario poses significant risks for species with limited dispersal abilities and those that require specific microhabitats to thrive.

4.4 Integrated models

Integrated models combine ecological, genetic, and physiological data to provide a comprehensive understanding of species’ responses to climate change. These models can predict potential range expansions or contractions and assess species’ adaptive capacities. By integrating data from different disciplines, integrated models can more accurately simulate how species will survive and reproduce in changing environments. For example, these models can identify species with high genetic diversity and physiological plasticity, which are more likely to adapt to new climate conditions. Additionally, integrated models can help pinpoint future refugia, providing scientific guidance for conservation efforts. This information is crucial for developing effective conservation strategies, guiding the selection of protected areas, planning species translocations, and restoring habitats, thereby enhancing species’ chances of survival under climate change. By employing this comprehensive approach, conservation biologists can better address the complex challenges posed by climate change, ensuring the long-term preservation of biodiversity.

Integrated models have been used to assess the adaptive capacity of reptiles, such as the rainforest sunskink. These models consider factors like genetic diversity and physiological plasticity to predict how species may adapt to changing climates (Carter and Janzen, 2021). Studies using integrated models show that some reptiles may expand their ranges in response to climate change, while others may face significant range contractions. For instance, models for the velvet gecko predict potential range expansions into new suitable habitats, while other species like the Phrynosoma modestum are expected to suffer range contractions (Vicenzi et al., 2017).

5 Case Studies of Reptile Responses to Climate Change

5.1 Regional case studies

Climate change poses significant threats to Australian reptiles, with many species experiencing range contractions and shifts due to rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns. For instance, the potential distribution of the black beaded lizard (Heloderma alvarezi) under global warming scenarios shows a significant reduction in suitable habitats under pessimistic climate forecasts (Figure 3) (Gómez-Cruz et al., 2021).

Figure 3 Potential distribution of H. alvarezi under different climate change scenarios using different Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) and the seven bioclimatic variables that best explain the potential distribution of H. alvarezi (Adopted from Gómez-Cruz et al., 2021 ) Image caption: The lower left panel shows the current distribution (blue area). Under the optimistic scenario (RCP 4.5), projections for 2050 and 2070 indicate that while the distribution area slightly decreases, it still maintains a relatively large range. In the pessimistic scenario (RCP 7), projections for 2050 and 2070 show a significant reduction in the distribution area, becoming more confined. The colors from light red to dark red represent the impact of climate change on H. alvarezi’s distribution, helping to understand spatial distribution changes. The scale and north arrow (N) guide spatial understanding (Adapted from Gómez-Cruz et al., 2021)

North American snake species, such as those in the Mojave and Sonoran Desert ecoregions, are also affected by climate change. Citizen science data has been instrumental in assessing these impacts, showing that rising temperatures are leading to shifts in species distributions and changes in community composition (Barrows et al., 2016). African chameleons are particularly vulnerable to climate change due to their specialized habitat requirements. Studies have shown that changing climate conditions, such as increased temperature and altered rainfall patterns, are likely to reduce the available suitable habitats for these species (El-Gabbas et al., 2016).

5.2 Habitat-specific case studies

Forest fragmentation due to climate change and human activities significantly affects reptile communities. In the Mediterranean basin, the response of reptiles to fire varies with forest type, with species in cork oak forests showing resilience to fire, while those in pine plantations are more adversely affected (Chergui et al., 2019).

Desert reptiles are highly vulnerable to increased temperatures. Experimental warming studies on the viviparous lizard (Eremias multiocellata) from the Inner Mongolia desert steppe show that heat stress leads to oxidative stress and immunosuppression, indicating high vulnerability to climate warming (Han et al., 2020). Reptiles inhabiting wetlands, such as those in Sri Lanka, face threats from changing precipitation patterns that affect water availability and habitat conditions. Research highlights the need for targeted conservation strategies to address these challenges (Dayananda et al., 2021). Tropical rainforests reptiles also experience significant stress due to climate change. Changes in temperature and humidity disrupt these ecosystems, affecting reptile behavior and reproduction. Tropical lizards, for example, exhibit altered activity patterns in response to increased temperatures, leading to reduced feeding opportunities and increased predation risks. Fragmentation of rainforest habitats further isolates populations and limits genetic diversity.

5.3 Species-specific case studies

Sea turtles, such as the green sea turtle, are significantly affected by climate change, particularly through temperature-dependent sex determination and sea level rise. Studies on West African populations predict an increase in female hatchlings and loss of nesting areas due to rising sea levels, which could ultimately lead to population declines (Patrício et al., 2018). Anole lizards exhibit a range of responses to climate change based on their microhabitats. Research on thermal adaptation shows that these lizards can exhibit considerable plasticity in their thermal traits, allowing them to persist in changing environments, although their long-term survival may still be threatened by extreme heat events (Bodensteiner et al., 2020). Additionally, anole lizards have been observed to shift their activity patterns, seeking cooler microhabitats during the hottest parts of the day to avoid thermal stress. This behavioral adaptation can mitigate some immediate effects of rising temperatures, but it may also lead to changes in predator-prey dynamics and interspecies competition.

The varied responses of reptiles to climate change highlight the importance of habitat diversity in conservation efforts. For instance, maintaining a mosaic of microhabitats within protected areas can provide reptiles with the necessary refuges to cope with extreme weather conditions. Moreover, conservation strategies should consider the genetic diversity within reptile populations, as genetic variation can influence the ability of species to adapt to changing climates. Studies have shown that populations with higher genetic diversity are more resilient to environmental stressors, suggesting that efforts to preserve and enhance genetic diversity could be crucial for the long-term survival of species like anole lizards and sea turtles. In summary, while some reptiles like anole lizards demonstrate a degree of adaptability to climate change, the overarching threat to their long-term survival, particularly due to extreme events and habitat loss, remains significant. Conservation strategies must integrate habitat protection, behavioral research, and genetic studies to create robust approaches that can support the resilience and persistence of these species in a rapidly changing climate.

6 Conservation Strategies and Management Implications

6.1 Adaptive management approaches

To enhance the resilience of reptile populations in the face of climate change, various adaptive management approaches can be implemented. These strategies include habitat restoration, assisted migration, and ex-situ conservation. Restoring degraded habitats can help maintain or increase habitat connectivity, allowing reptile populations to move and adapt to changing environmental conditions. This involves reforestation, wetland restoration, and the creation of habitat corridors (El-Gabbas et al., 2016).

Assisted migration involves relocating species to areas with more suitable climatic conditions. This strategy is particularly useful for species with limited dispersal abilities and those facing imminent habitat loss due to climate change (Gómez-Cruz et al., 2021). Ex-situ conservation measures, such as captive breeding programs and the establishment of gene banks, can serve as a safeguard against extinction for critically endangered species. These programs can also facilitate future reintroductions into suitable habitats (Diele-Viegas and Rocha, 2018).

6.2 Protected areas and climate refugia

Protected areas (PAs) are critical for conserving reptile diversity by providing refuges from habitat destruction and other anthropogenic pressures. However, their effectiveness in mitigating climate change impacts depends on their ability to encompass a range of climatic conditions and habitats (Gaüzère et al., 2016). Climate refugia, areas that remain stable under changing climate conditions, offer safe havens for species. Identifying these refugia involves using ecological niche models to predict future habitat suitability and incorporating these areas into conservation planning (Petford and Alexander, 2021). By integrating climate refugia into PAs, conservationists can enhance reptile populations’ resilience to climate change.

Adaptive management of PAs is essential, requiring continuous monitoring and timely adjustments in management practices. Habitat restoration can enhance connectivity between refugia, and buffer zones can mitigate edge effects. Effective enforcement of regulations within PAs and engaging local communities in conservation efforts are crucial for success. Education and outreach can raise awareness about reptile conservation and the role of PAs in climate change mitigation. International cooperation and funding are vital to support PAs, especially in biodiversity hotspots. Collaborative efforts can lead to the sharing of best practices and resources, strengthening the global network of protected areas.

6.3 Policy and legislation

Effective policies are essential for mitigating the impacts of climate change on reptile diversity. Policies should promote sustainable land use, protect critical habitats, and support adaptive management strategies. International agreements, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Paris Agreement, play a crucial role in setting global targets for biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation. These agreements encourage countries to integrate climate adaptation and biodiversity conservation into their national strategies (LeDee et al., 2020).

National policies should focus on protecting key habitats, enhancing habitat connectivity, and supporting research and monitoring programs to track the impacts of climate change on reptile populations. Implementing these policies requires collaboration between governments, NGOs, and local communities (Butt et al., 2016).

7 Future Research Directions

7.1 Knowledge gaps and research needs

Despite significant advancements in understanding the impacts of climate change on reptiles, several key areas require further research. First, there is a need for more detailed studies on the physiological and behavioral responses of reptiles to climate variables. While broad patterns are known, the specific mechanisms by which temperature, humidity, and precipitation changes affect different species are not fully understood. Research should focus on species-specific responses and the potential for evolutionary adaptation to changing environments. Second, the interactions between climate change and other anthropogenic factors such as habitat destruction, pollution, and invasive species need to be better understood. These combined pressures can exacerbate the impacts on reptile populations and their habitats. Understanding these interactions is crucial for developing comprehensive conservation strategies. Third, there is a significant knowledge gap in the impact of climate change on reptile reproductive success and lifecycle events. For many species, reproductive cycles are closely tied to environmental conditions, and shifts in climate can disrupt these cycles, leading to population declines.

Long-term monitoring and data collection are essential for tracking changes in reptile populations and their habitats over time. Continuous data collection helps in understanding temporal trends, assessing the effectiveness of conservation measures, and making informed decisions. Monitoring programs should include various environmental parameters, population dynamics, and genetic diversity to provide a comprehensive understanding of climate change impacts. Effective long-term monitoring requires standardized methods and collaborative efforts across different regions and habitats. This will enable the collection of comparable data sets that can be used to detect large-scale patterns and trends. Additionally, incorporating advanced technologies such as remote sensing and genetic analysis can enhance monitoring capabilities and provide more detailed insights into reptile responses to climate change (Biber et al., 2023).

7.2 Advances in technology and methodology

Technological and methodological advancements are enhancing our ability to study reptile responses to climate change. Remote sensing technologies, such as satellite imagery and drones, enable the monitoring of habitat changes and environmental conditions over large spatial scales. These tools provide valuable data for modeling habitat suitability and assessing landscape connectivity (Petford and Alexander, 2021).

Genetic techniques, including environmental DNA (eDNA) and next-generation sequencing, offer insights into the genetic diversity and population structure of reptiles. These methods help identify genetic bottlenecks, assess adaptive potential, and inform conservation strategies (Nordstrom et al., 2022).

Citizen science programs engage the public in data collection, expanding the spatial and temporal scope of research. These programs are particularly useful for monitoring reptile distributions and detecting shifts in response to climate change. With proper training and oversight, citizen scientists can collect high-quality data that complements professional research efforts (Barrows et al., 2016).

7.3 Interdisciplinary approaches

Addressing the complex challenges posed by climate change requires interdisciplinary approaches that integrate ecological, climatological, genetic, and social science perspectives. Ecologists study species interactions and habitat requirements, climatologists analyze changing weather patterns, geneticists explore species’ adaptability, and social scientists assess human dimensions like community involvement and policy implications. Collaboration among researchers from these fields provides a holistic understanding of climate impacts on reptiles, enabling the identification of effective conservation strategies.

Global partnerships and collaborative research efforts are essential. International cooperation facilitates the sharing of data, resources, and expertise, leading to robust and comprehensive conservation strategies. Programs like the Global Reptile Assessment (GRA) offer valuable frameworks for international collaboration, helping to assess species’ statuses, understand threats, and prioritize conservation actions. By promoting global partnerships, the GRA ensures coordinated and comprehensive efforts that address both local and global challenges.

In conclusion, interdisciplinary and international collaboration is crucial for developing effective conservation strategies to mitigate climate change impacts on reptiles. By leveraging diverse scientific expertise and fostering global cooperation, we can enhance the resilience and survival of reptile species in a changing climate (Diele-Viegas and Rocha, 2018).

8 Concluding Remarks

Climate change poses significant threats to reptile diversity globally. Key impacts include shifts in species distributions, changes in reproductive cycles, and increased vulnerability to extreme weather events. Reptiles in tropical, temperate, and arid regions, as well as those inhabiting specific habitats such as forests, deserts, wetlands, and coastal areas, are all affected differently. Species with limited dispersal abilities and specialized habitat requirements are particularly vulnerable to climate-induced changes. Predictive models, such as species distribution models (SDMs) and climate envelope models, have proven effective in forecasting potential impacts of climate change on reptile distributions. These models help identify areas of habitat loss, potential refugia, and the adaptive capacity of different species. Conservation strategies, including habitat restoration, assisted migration, and ex-situ conservation, are essential for enhancing the resilience of reptile populations. Protected areas and climate refugia play a critical role in conserving reptile diversity, but their effectiveness depends on their management and the inclusion of future climate scenarios.

Understanding the impacts of climate change on reptiles is crucial for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem health. Reptiles serve as important indicators of environmental changes due to their sensitivity to temperature and habitat alterations. Mitigating these impacts through targeted conservation efforts is vital to preserving reptile diversity and maintaining ecological balance. This study highlights the need for comprehensive data collection, advanced modeling techniques, and adaptive management strategies to address the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change. Proactive conservation efforts are essential to safeguard reptile diversity in the face of climate change. Conservationists, researchers, and policymakers must collaborate to implement effective strategies that enhance habitat connectivity, protect critical areas, and promote species adaptation. Public awareness and involvement through citizen science initiatives can also play a significant role in monitoring and protecting reptile populations.

Continued research is necessary to fill knowledge gaps and improve predictive models of climate change impacts on reptiles. Interdisciplinary approaches that integrate ecological, climatological, genetic, and social science perspectives will provide a more holistic understanding and effective solutions. Global cooperation and partnerships are crucial to address these challenges collectively and ensure the long-term conservation of reptile diversity. By working together, we can mitigate the adverse effects of climate change and preserve the rich biodiversity of reptiles for future generations.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the two anonymous peer reviewers for their thorough review of this study and for their valuable suggestions for improvement.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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